Ancestry Magazine

Until 1821, most of the southwestern United States was part of Spain, then part of an independent Mexico. When the United States annexed the Republic of Texas in 1845, making it the twenty-eighth state, Mexico declared war.

The ensuing war (1846—48) saw Mexico lose large amounts of its territory in western North America, including what is now Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. What evolved in the American Southwest was a diverse and complex culture where black, white, Hispanic, and American Indian cultures would coexist and compete at the same time. It was also a place where the culture of the area would often seem out of step with the rest of the country.

For example, in New Mexico an ancient Hispanic Roman Catholicism would be the driving cultural force whereas in Arizona it would stand side by side with the Mormons to comprise the two largest denominations in the state. In both states, the White Anglo Saxon Protestant (WASP) cultural norms didn’t apply. Sometimes it is forgotten that in New Mexico, many of the old Spanish families arrived long before the New England or Virginia colonist set foot on American shores. Thus, Roman Catholic parish registers are the major source for tracing families back hundreds of years. Also, in the Mormon colonies scattered throughout Arizona, the pre-1890 practice of plural marriage tied the frontier fabric together in a series of intertwining families that went against the national grain.

A mixture of Hispanic, Anglo, and black society arose in Texas as Southerners received land grants from Mexico beginning in 1823. These colonists rebelled in 1835 and formed their own country, the Republic of Texas. This period has been celebrated in American history with the Battle of the Alamo as its cultural symbol. The Republic of Texas generated its own records.

In what is now Oklahoma, the society was unusually complicated because American Indians from various parts of the United States had been removed there by the federal government beginning in 1804 in several waves. The “Trail of Tears” became the cultural symbol to represent this tragic part of history. Until the formation of the Dawes Commission in 1893, the tribes functioned as their own governments and generated their own records. The various Indian agencies also generated records. The Dawes Commission broke up the nations by allotting individuals parcels of land and opening up formal tribal lands for settlement. Kent Carter’s book The Dawes Commission and the Allotment of the Five Civilized Tribes, 1893—1914 (Ancestry, 1999) is an excellent study of the history and repercussions of this pivotal episode in the government policies toward the native peoples.

In order to approach this complex tapestry of ethnic groups and governments, a working knowledge of history is important. Records may have originally been kept by the Spanish, Mexican, tribal, Indian agencies, Republic of Texas, U.S. territorial, U.S. federal, or state governments. The years each government was in power can help to determine what types of records need to be searched.

A working knowledge of the ethnic and religious history is also important. For example, knowing that early Protestants settling in Spanish or Mexican territories had to conform to the established Roman Catholic faith helps to explain why Protestants are found in Roman Catholic parish registers. Also, knowing that in Texas and Oklahoma most people belonged to churches that baptized adults helps to explain why a birth or christening record does not exist for most people. Similarly, knowing which American Indian tribes lived where or we re removed to where can help in determining if a family may really have Native American heritage. For African American families, a working knowledge of the relationship of blacks to their white and Indian slave owners may open up records not previously considered. These and other complex factors can be identified if you read a general history or genealogical guide to the state you are working in before approaching the records.

When researching a Southwest family, if you feel like you are not quite in step with what your research experience has been in other parts of the United States, just remember that you aren’t. However, frontier Southwest families, whether white, black, Hispanic, Indian, or a mixture, can provide you with some of the most colorful and interesting stories and information in your genealogy.

Arizona
Genealogical research in Arizona is made easier by the large collections of the Arizona State Archives, the Arizona Historical Society, and the fact that large collections have been microfilmed and are available at the Family History Library (FHL) in Salt Lake City. Records are also starting to appear online, such as birth (1887—1928) and death records (1878—1953). See genealogy.az.gov.

The first European explorers in what is now Arizona came in the mid-1500s, but they only later considered it for settlement. The area was already home to many American Indians including the Apache, Hopi, and Navajo. Due to the harsh conditions and conflict with the tribes, the Spanish foothold in Arizona was isolated. The records of these tribes, which document their history and struggles, can be found at the National Archives branches in Denver and Los Angeles.

Spanish settlement included a fort at Tubac (1753) and Tucson (1775). Present-day Arizona became part of Mexico in 1821. During the Mexican-American War (1846—48) the United States acquired the land north of the Gila River. In 1853, the Gadsden Purchase, south of the Gila River was added to the territory. This was part of New Mexico Territory until Arizona Territory was created in 1863.

Some territorial settlement came by way of Cooke’s Wagon Route in the south, which took settlers to the California gold fields. It was not until 1886 that the conflicts between the Apache and those involved in the ranching and mining industry ended.

A major migration of whites into Arizona came through the colonization programs of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) beginning in 1877. Webbing out from Salt Lake City, colonists were assigned areas from which to fortify their church’s interest. The largest colony was in Mesa, which is today a suburb of Phoenix, and still remains predominately Mormon, as do other parts of the state. Records of Mormon Americana can be found at the FHL website at www.familysearch.org.

Arizona records begin with the Spanish period. Censuses were taken in 1801 by the Spanish (Pimeria Alta), Mexico in 1831 (Santa Cruz County) and 1852 (Pimeria Alta), and territorial enumerations for 1864, 1866, and 1882. The first federal census schedule was in 1860 (Arizona County). As land opened up in 1863, land offices were established from which mining claims, homestead claims, and grazing lands were dispersed.

Records are at the BLM Arizona office in Phoenix as well as the National Archives—Southwest Region. The county recorders kept subsequent land records. Probate-related materials were filed with the clerk of each county’s superior court, with various territorial, state, county, and municipal courts handling civil and criminal cases.

As the railroads began crossing the territory linking Albuquerque, New Mexico, and San Bernardino, California, more settlers arrived in Arizona. Large-scale settlement in Arizona didn’t o ccur until after statehood in 1912, with the metropolis of Phoenix emerging as a major western city with sprawling suburbs. Today, Arizona is a major tourist destination and retirement mecca. Its population remains a mixture of white, black, Hispanic, and American Indian.

Arizona State Archives
Department of Library, Archives, and Public Records State Capitol
1700 W. Washington Street
Phoenix, AZ 85007

Arizona Historical Society
949 E. Second Street
Tucson, AZ 85719

Arizona State Genealogical Society
PO Box 47075
Tucson, AZ 85733

Mesa Family History Center
41 S. Hobson Street
Mesa, AZ 85204-1021

Office of Vital Records
Arizona Department of Health Services
1818 W. Adams
Phoenix, AZ 85007
mailing: PO Box 3887
Phoenix, AZ 85030-3887

New Mexico
The first place to start in the search for New Mexico records is the New Mexico State Records and Archives. It is at this repository that records from the Spanish, Mexican, territorial, and state periods can be found. For example, New Mexico did not began statewide registration of births and deaths until 1919, so to fill in the gap the archives has on microfilm the Roman Catholic parish registers from the Archdiocese of Santa Fe and Gallup. The archives also house many county records and district court records.

An excellent guide to the records of the state is Karen Stein Daniel’s Genealogical Resources in New Mexico (2d ed. Albuquerque, New Mexico: New Mexico Genealogical Society, 2002). Also to be considered are the local records generated by the county governments. These often include documents from the Mexican and territorial periods, as well as marriages, land, tax, probate, and court records.

It is important to understand that because of New Mexico’s history and cultural dynamics, many of the old Spanish families can be documented from 1598. By 1679, the Hispanic population was about 2,500, with a Pueblo Indian population of about 17,000. The Spanish and American Indians commonly intermarried.

In 1680, the Pueblo revolted against the Spanish, who subsequently reconquered and recolonized New Mexico (1692—97). From 1700, land grants were provided to Hispanic settlers, and by 1796, almost 36,000 ranchers and farmers were living in the Rio Grande valley. When Mexico gained independence in 1821, the native population also became citizens.

The Mexican-American War (1846—48) saw the area of New Mexico annexed into the United States and made into a territory in 1850. As there was already an old and established population, this meant that records, such as land claims, were generated from which the rights of ownership were reestablished under the United States government.

Not only are land records important but researchers will also want to check local and government censuses and so-called “census substitutes” such as tax rolls, military or troop lists and musters, distribution lists, school censuses, voter lists, and juror lists. Together, the church and civil records can help to reconstruct a family.

Censuses, often local in nature, can document residents of all ethnic groups. There were periodic Spanish and Mexican censuses (1750—1845), and these have been published by the New Mexico Genealogical Society. The first enumeration under the United States was in 1850.

The mining and ranching industries attracted large numbers of immigrants and other Americans. New Mexico entered the union with a population of 300,000 in 1912. The creation of the Los Alamos project during World War II brought jobs and the atomic bomb to the state’s history. Today, New Mexico remains a diverse cultural community where the majority white, Hispanic, and Native American lifestyles intersect and draw on each other.

New Mexico State Records and Archives
1205 Camino Carlos Rey
Santa Fe, NM 87507

New Mexico Department of Health
1105 South Saint Francis Drive
Santa Fe, NM 87502-6110
mailing: New Mexico Vital Records
PO Box 26110
Santa Fe, NM 87502

New Mexico Genealogical Society
PO Box 8283
Albuquerque, NM 87198-8283

Historical Society of New Mexico
PO Box 1912
Santa Fe, NM 87504

Oklahoma
From 1890 until statehood in 1907, Oklahoma, as it is known today, was comprised of two territories: Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory. The nations of the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole) became Indian Territory in 1890. Settlers were confined to Oklahoma Territory although some white settlers were allowed in the Indian Territory, with permission of the particular nation. There is an 1890 territorial census for the Oklahoma Territory portion. These two areas were combined in 1907 and admitted to the Union as the state of Oklahoma.

The two areas share a complex history where Native American, black, and white cultures and concerns both coexisted and conflicted with each other. In the Indian Territory, various tribes with little or nothing in common were forced to live together when, in the end, their tribal lands were stripped from them. Also emerging out of this cultural stew was a mixed-race population threading itself throughout all three. Black slaves were originally brought into the area by their Indian owners and some were eventually recognized as citizens of one of the five civilized tribes.

Begin research into all kinds of Oklahoma genealogy at the Oklahoma Historical Society. This repository has one of the largest and finest collections of Native American collections in the United States. The NARA branches in Kansas City, Fort Worth, and Washington, D.C., also hold a wealth of information on Oklahoma residents. Parts of the collections from these repositories have also been microfilmed and are available at the FHL. For records generated by the state government, as well as copies of government land surveys, consult the Oklahoma State Archives.

A tool for learning more about Oklahoma and Indian Territory records is Bradford Koplowitz’s Guide to the Historical Records of Oklahoma (Heritage Books, 1997), which provides an inventory of the public records by county and by city and town.

The United States government began the process of removing tribes from the east to the open spaces west of the Mississippi River in 1804 with the largest removals from 1825 to 1842. Although some sixty-five tribes were settled in the Indian Territory, the largest were the southeastern Five Tribes: Creek, Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole nations. This relocation saw the building of towns, forts, schools, and government infrastructures within these nations. During the Civil War, tribal members fought for both sides, although the Confederacy was heavily favored.

It was in Oklahoma Territory that farmers, ranchers, railroad workers, the military, and general s ettlers were legally permitted to live, being banned from Indian Territory. By 1880 settlers were looking illegally toward Indian Territory for new lands. When the government opened up “unassigned” lands on 22 April 1889, a stampede of homesteaders rushed in but were met by illegal settlers already there. This complicated the homesteading process. By the 1890s, the government forced the tribes to give up their nations by allotting individuals parcels of ground. The Dawes Commission was set up in 1893 to register these allotments and to change the society from the tribal governments to a territorial government.

Many records were generated by the counties, the tribes, and the Indian agencies. Collections of these can be found at the Oklahoma Historical Society, the FHL, and locally at county courthouses. The state did not began recording births and deaths until 1908, and this didn’t become mandatory until 1917. Prior to 1908, births and deaths can be found through the various Indian agency records and in the denominations who theologically had a reason to keep records of birth and christenings. Marriages are registered with the county and agency governments. Marriage records can also be found in the records of the five civilized tribes. These often include marriages between members of the specific tribe and whites (usually noted as U.S. citizens).

The oil boom of the 1930s saw prosperity come to Oklahoma just as the dust bowl saw massive economic destruction and immigration to California. Today, Oklahoma is a mixture of urban and rural with Tulsa and Oklahoma City as major American metropolitan areas, and small towns still dotting the landscape.

Oklahoma Genealogical Society
PO Box 12986
Oklahoma City, OK 73157

Oklahoma Historical Society
2100 N. Lincoln Blvd Oklahoma City, OK 73105

Oklahoma State Archives and Records Management
Oklahoma Department of Libraries
Allen Wright Memorial Library Building
200 Northeast 18th Street
Oklahoma City, OK 73105-3298

Vital Records Service
State Department of Health
1000 Northeast 10th Street
Oklahoma City, OK 73117

Texas
Texas is the second largest state in the nation. It consists of many varied cultures each with their own history and interests. These cultures have created various and often unique record sources from the Spanish period (1682—1821), Mexican period (1821—36), Republic of Texas period (1836—45), and statehood in 1845.

All of these historic periods saw records generated, such as church registers, land claims, court records, and military records. As counties were formed in Texas, the local government continued the record-keeping process with vital, land, probate, court, and tax records. In Texas county government, the county clerk performs duties that in other states would be divided among several offices. The county clerk registers a wide variety of documents from deeds to marriage licenses to cattle brands. Because of the complex development of the modern state of Texas, a knowledge of its history is very helpful.

An excellent place to start the search for a Texas ancestor is at the Texas State Library and Archives Commission in Austin. This archive holds records from the various historical periods, records generated by the state, map collections, military records, voter lists, directories, and newspapers, as well as microfilm of many county records. Visit Texas Sta te Library and Archives Commission for online information.

Texas is also home to the National Archives—Southwest Region repository in Fort Worth, which houses, among other things, federal, Indian, and military records for Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Louisiana. The FHL also has a large collection of Texas county records with copies of its microfilm available at the state archives.

Texas research is such a vast and diverse topic that one research guide could not possibly cover all the topics and situations encountered by genealogists. An excellent work that can be used as a launching point is Imogene Kinard Kennedy and J. Leon Kennedy’s Genealogical Records in Texas (Genealogical Publishing Co., 1987). This work has historical maps, a Spanish-English word list, a short synopsis on record types, and a short section on each county. Another guide is Carolyn R. and Joe E. Ericson’s A Guide to Texas Research (Ericson Books, 1994).

The first permanent European settlement in what is now Texas was founded in 1682 when a Spanish town was founded near El Paso. It remained Spanish until Mexican independence in 1821. In 1823, the Mexican government made a “First Contract” with Stephen Austin so American colonists could be brought into the area. Southerners from the southeastern United States flocked into the area, and by 1832 some 20,000 had arrived. By 1835, they had rebelled against Mexico and achieved independence in 1836 when they founded the Republic of Texas. Independence lasted until the American annexation in 1845. This caused Mexico to declare war against the United States and thousands of Texans enlisted on the American side.

In 1861, Texas seceded from the Union and became part of the Confederate States of America, creating more records about the Texans. It was readmitted to the Union in 1870. At about this time the remaining Indian tribes removed northward to Indian Territory, leaving scattere d and often mixed-blood families to coexist with the larger white, black, and Hispanic population.

While the broad prairies of south, east, and southwest Texas were being settled by ranchers prior to the Civil War, Texas was impoverished at the conclusion of the war. The cattle industry became the catalyst to reconstruct and further develop the state. Texas would go on to become the leading producer of beef in the nation during the 1870s and 1880s as trails crisscrossed the state leading to other national markets. It was the introduction of barbed wire and sheep to Texas that began the decline of the cattle empires resulting in range wars.

With the railroads linking the state during the last quarter of the nineteenth century came an influx of immigrants and settlers. By 1900, the development within the state was largely industrial and agricultural with Texas taking on its modern character by 1920. Of all the transformations to occur within the Texas landscape it was the petroleum and natural gas industry that has continued to provide unimaginable wealth to the economy. The twentieth century saw once moderate-sized cities such as Austin, Dallas, El Paso, Fort Worth, Houston, and San Antonio develop into huge metropolitan areas.

Texas State Genealogical Society
Library: part of the Texas State Library

National Archives—Southwest Region
501 Felix Street, Building 1
PO Box 6216
Fort Worth, TX 76115

Sam Houston Regional Library and Research Center
650 FM 1011
PO Box 310
Liberty, TX 77575

This is a part of the Texas State Library and Archives Commission.
Texas Department of Health
1100 West 49th Street
Austin, TX 78756-3199

Texas State Library and Archives Commission
Lorenzo De Zavala State Archives and Library Building
1201 Brazos Street
PO Box 12927
Austin, TX 78711

Dwight A. Radford is a professional genealogist residing in Salt Lake City, Utah. He specializes in Irish and Irish immigrant research and is co-author of the book A Genealogist’s Guide to Discovering Your Irish Ancestor (Betterway Books, 2001). He is also a contributing author to the third edition of Red Book: American State, County, and Town Sources (Ancestry, 2004).

Return to September/October 2004 issue of Ancestry Magazine.